Brazilian Government and Politics

By Jennifer Lee

The 1988 Constitution and Government Structure
Brazil is a federal republic comprised of 26 states and a federal district city. The present constitution which is the supreme law of the land was written in 1988 under then President Jose Sarney. The new constitution was designed to replace the previous constitution developed under a strong military regime. One of the changes in the new constitution was restructuring the process of the presidential election. The system established a direct majority vote system with two rounds and the candidate who receives the majority votes is to win the race; if a majority vote does not occur in the first round, a second round then takes place.
The Brazilian government bureaucracy is divided into three levels of federal, regional, and local control. The federal government is responsible of national trade and finances, and it receives roughly 75% of the total governmental revenue. The federal government was centralized at Brasilia under the military regime and the infrastructure still remains till today. The federal institution is comprised of three branches of the government: the executive, legislative, and the judicial. The separation of power is very similar to that observed in the U.S. government structure. However, the executive branch, or the President, carries substantial amount of power in the Brazilian government. The president is elected through a direct election process with majority votes, and the term lasts four years. The legislative branch has a bicameral congress, or two central domains of power. The Chamber of Deputies functions similarly to the House of Representatives in the U.S., and the Senate resembles the functions of the Senate in the U.S. The judicial branch includes the Supreme Court as well as numerous state and municipal courts. The Supreme Court has the power to limit governmental authority and keep a check on the president’s potential misuse of power. Still, however, the president exercises a larger share of power, which especially amplified during the military regime.
The federal district of Brazil is Brasilia, where major political transactions are performed. Besides the federal district, there are twenty six state level governments. Each state has an elected governor, and the state legislatures are unicameral. Lastly, the municipal governments, or county level municipalities, also consist of local councils and elected prefects, or mayors. They are in charge of overseeing and implementing local laws and meeting community needs. There are a total of 5,513 local level municipalities in Brazil.

Political Parties and Political Culture
Brazil’s political parties are a reflection of Brazil’s diversity. Unlike the United States, where there is a majority Republican or Democratic party, Brazil’s political parties are largely divided into the political left, center, and center right, with several parties belonging to each category. During the military regime, however, the parties were largely divided into only two. The current political party that has power in the House is the PT, or the Worker’s Party. Past president Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, also belonged to the PT and served two terms as president. The current president, Dilma Rousseff, who is Brazil’s first female president, is also a member of the same party and therefore received full support by Lula da Silva during the election period, which contributed largely to her victory.
Overall, Brazilians have little faith in the government and especially distrust political parties. Rather, they express higher trust for the Church and the military. The Catholic Church, along with other religious groups, is a powerful interest group in Brazil. Political scientists term Brazil’s political culture as a practice of Corporatism. Corporatism is defined as the “tendency to divide society into different bodies or corporations according to specific functions or profession.” Sometimes, affiliation to a group can be a greater identity determinant than the nation. Besides the Catholic Church, the military is another influential interest group in the government. Statism is also observed; states function independently and people attach strong loyalty to each state they belong to. Brazil’s political culture is marked by the majority’s large distrust of democratic institutions, which in turn generates greater corporatism since individuals put faith in different bodies or sectors of society according to its specific functions rather than trusting the government as a whole.

The Military
The military force in Brazil is also known as Forças Armadas Brasileiras. The military is comprised of the Army, the Navy including the Marines, and the Air Force. Power of the military was significantly reduced after the drafting of the new constitution in 1988. However, even though the military regime ended the military’s dominant control in government, Brazil’s military force continue to be the largest in Latin America. The Brazilian army was created in year 1822 in an effort to gain independence from Portugal. Originally, the military was very racially as well as ethnically and culturally diverse. The original military was comprised of some loyal Portuguese, Brazilians, as well as foreign soldiers. In Brazil, military service is compulsory for all men between ages 18 to 45. The compulsory service obligation lasts for 9 to 12 months. Longer periods of voluntary service are open to both males and females and military career jobs are open to both genders as well. In fact, Brazil was the very first country in South America to allow women‘s involvement in military career ranks. Women started legally participating in the military in the early 1980s.

Brazil’s Foreign Policy
Brazil is part of the BRIC nations – Brazil, Russia, India, China – a term coined to indicate the coalition of countries with emerging economic power in the world market. Thus, Brazil holds substantial economic power in the world and especially among South American countries. Brazil is an economic and political leader of Mercosur, which is an economic and political agreement between Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Brazil is also a leading lender to many of the South American countries and it also takes on the responsibility to advocate for South America in midst of the world powers. Brazil has historically had a positive relationship with the U.S. Past presidents have promoted pro-American policies and kept up an active and open trade market with the U.S. An area of tension between the US and Brazil is Brazil’s foreign policy towards the Middle East. Past president Lula da Silva especially had a very open and positive relationship with Iran, of which the U.S. disapproved. The U.S. government at the time feared that Brazil may be assisting or be associated with nuclear investments in Iran. Despite the disapproval from the U.S., Brazil continues to establish a sound relationship with the Middle Eastern countries.  Recently, current President Dilma Rousseff has aimed to repair this damaged relationship with the US through improved trade relations and attempting to acquiesce to U.S. wishes on the fighter jet contract. Rousseff has shown rather stronger stances on Iran and Chinese currency compared to the past president, which are both favorable actions for the US. As Brazil drives toward standing shoulder to shoulder with the leading world powers, the country has increased its advocacy and involvement in improving human rights violations and performing UN related tasks. Brazil has been pushing for a seat in the UN Security Council for the past several years.

Contemporary Brazilian History

 Dilma Rousseff — President of Brazil

en.mercopress.com

By Marcy Herr

The clearest way to write about contemporary Brazilian history is in the form of a timeline with a discussion of significant events. This gives a brief overview of a span of time in which Brazil changed and developed through various reasons including shifts in leadership.

1985-This is a good year to begin with because this marked the year that the first civilian president in 21 years was elected. Tancredo Neves was set to take office but was replaced by his vice president, Jose Sarney, after Neves passed away. This election was organized by the military who setup an electoral college system in hopes of  electing a president who could lead Brazil out of their economic crisis. Sarney was President until 1990 and is now a Senator in Brazil. His time in office included the challenges of foreign debt, inflation, and corruption. Sarney attempted to solve the problem of inflation by introducing a freeze for prices and wages called the Cruzado Plan. This was temporarily successful but when the freeze was lifted the problem of inflation returned.

1988-A new constitution was passed in Brazil that covered various aspects such as interest rates, education, health, divorce, Indian rights, strikes and the minimum wage. The most important parts of this constitution reduced presidential power. Specifically, by abolishing the decree law, which allowed the president to pass legislation against the wishes of Congress.

1989-Fernando Collor de Mello, a wealthy governor, was elected in the first direct election since 1960. In his platform he promised to promote economic growth through radical reform, but nothing seemed to improve. Collor was only President for two years because he resigned as the Senate was preparing to impeach him for corruption.

1992-President Collor resigns, is found guilty by the Senate in his impeachment trial, but is later acquitted.

1992-The UN Conference on Environment and Development, Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro. 172 nations participated with the goal of sustainable development.

1994-Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected President. His main accomplishments in office was modernizing the government and getting control of inflation. He was president until 2003 when his term ended and he returned to academia.

1996-Eldorado dos Carajas massacre where 19 Amazon peasants were killed by police. These members of the Landless Workers Movement were blocking a highway in protest against the government. This group wanted the unproductive ranch that they lived on to be allocated to their community.

1998-Fernando Henrique Cardoso was reelected to the presidency after the constitution was amended allowing him to have two terms. The Asian stock market collapsed with put countries worldwide in bind and the IMF supported Brazil with a rescue package

2000-Brazil’s 500 year anniversary of colonization by Portugal. Indians clashed with police to show their anger towards the racial genocide that occurred against the indigenous people after colonization when the population went from 5 million to 350,000 people.

2002-Brazil wins the World Cup for the 5th time defeating Germany 2-0. Brazil has more world cup titles than any other nation in the years 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and most recently 2002. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyndF-k338w

2002-Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva is elected president and serves until 2010. He promises political and economic reforms as well as solving the problem of hunger and poverty. Founder of the Workers’ Party and described as the most popular Brazilian president. Worked to bring people out of poverty and provide education to the working class.

2005-Dorothy Stang, American missionary and Amazon supporter, is murdered. This creates even more conflict over the land and resources of the Amazon. The government responds to this with a plan to protect part of the Amazon from further invasion.

2005-Many members of the Worker’s Party resign due to corruption but the following year Lula is reelected.

2008-Abortion legalization is rejected by Congress due to Catholic religious values

2008-Government buys 300,000 illegal guns off the streets

2010-Brazil is increasing its foreign diplomacy

2010-Construction is started of a controversial hydroelectric dam in Amazon

2010-The first female President, Dilma Rousseff, is elected representing the Working Party.

Throughout modern history Brazil has been facing issues of corruption, violence, tension with Indians, and poverty. The government is striving to solve these problems in preparation for the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympics.

Ensino superior (Higher Education)

by Conor Searles

Some Brazilian Universities rank among the top 200 in the world.

globo.com

HIGHER EDUCATION IN BRAZIL

               Over the past three decades the Brazilian government has been making higher education a priority in one of the fastest developing countries in the world. Resource allocation for higher education has seen a significant increase in an attempt to develop a system of higher education that will create a more educated and active citizenry. Former minister of education, Paulo Renato de Souza, requested of the world bank go asses the state of higher education in Brazil and from there identify factors that could lead to higher education to meet the growing needs of  Brazil and its citizens.  This assessment consisted of 4 phases:

• Identification of major issues facing Brazilian higher education
  • Minister of education
  • National education council members
  • Federal higher education officials
  • World bank staff
• Several Expert policy analysts created background reports for focal point of discussion for policy workshop
  • External efficiency (links between higher education and the wider economy)
  • Internal Efficiency (cost structures)
  • Equity (possible developments in student aid, other measures to promote wider access to higher education)
• Three day policy workshop to create channel of communication for fundamental and long-term change, based on accurate assessment of direction in which higher education must go
• Challenges and options
  • Ways in which brazil might address identified issues, mold higher education system to fit 21^st century requirements and demands

As it currently stands (as current as 1999 for this source anyway),  the current higher education system in Brazil is as follows:

• 1,907 institutions
  • 60 federal
  • 72 state
  • 60 municipal
  • 905 private
  • 4 types of institutions
    • Universities
      • “carry out traditional missions of teaching and research at the graduate and undergraduate levels”  (world bank study)
• University centers, tertiary institutions
  • Main mission is teaching
• Multiple Faculty Facilities (federacoes e integradas)
  • Non-universities
  • Offer programs in more than one subject area (ex: social sciences, technology)
• Single faculty facilities (instituicoes isoladas)
  • Non-university
  • Offer programs in only one subject area

With a population of over 170 million at the time and despite the large number of institutions of higher education in Brazil, only roughly 15% of the age group was enrolled in higher education institutions. While a majority of the students are enrolled in private institutions (roughly 65%, or 1.5 + million) the public sector enrolled over accounts for 35% (850,000) of the total population enrolled in higher education, half of which attend a federal university while state and municipal universities enroll roughly 1/5 of the total number of students enrolled in higher education. This is rather low compared to other South American countries.  Now however there is a greater demand and growing number of Brazilians seeking higher education, as graduation rates from secondary institutions are increasing as well as the older age citizens seeking a degree.  Private Colleges help keep up with that demand.

IESB — a private college in Brasilia

achabrasilia.com

While the quality of education is considered better at public institutions, the problem of competition is much greater, as the students who come from wealthier backgrounds can afford the tuition of private institutions, many middle class and lower class students have difficulty gaining access to these free public institutions. While these middle class students can gain admittance more easily to private institutions, the issue of tuition comes into play and the government does little to offer any form of financial aid.

The Brazilian government currently has in place a three-part strategy to combat all of the above inefficient aspects of higher education, and they are:

• Change the legal framework in which the Higher Education System currently operates at
• Switching to a performance-based funding system, allowing the minister of education more support for his policy goals
• Improving the capacity for evaluating instruction quality and institution performance

Improving capacity for evaluating instructional quality and institution performance has already taken positive steps to help improve the higher education system. The goal of this initiative is so that the Minister of Education’ role switches from that of a “funder of inputs” to that of “a guarantor of minimal standards.”   One of the more effective tools for this reform is the Coordenadoria de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Ensino superior or in English the coordinating body for improvement of higher education personnel (CAPES), who are responsible for evaluation and the university accreditation system. As it now stands the minister of education has four mechanisms for evaluating higher education, and more specifically undergraduate education in order to make the system more transparent for its citizens.

• Re-accreditation
• The Provao (similar to the SAT)
  • Tests achievement of graduating  students in the 13 most common career courses
  • Students are required to take this, but are not judged on individual performance
  • Acts as a measure of quality of instruction
• Institutional evaluation
• Higher education census

There is reason to be optimistic for the future of higher education in Brazil. Not only is the higher education system implementing system wide changes, but so are the primary and secondary education systems. Education is becoming more of a valued commodity in Brazil, and as the country grows economically, so will its education systems. The higher education system in Brazil is still relatively new, and the emphasis being placed on the education system as a whole shows that this will be a priority of the Brazilian government in the years to come. If Brazil hopes to continue its progress of becoming a major global power, and signs are certainly indicating that they are, then they must develop a system of higher education that will prepare their workforce for the demands that come with it. Their path to economic success begins with a system of education that will properly educate and train their workforce to be competitive in the global economy.

The Portuguese Colonization of Brazil

Hanna Mincemoyer

Discovery

Pedro Álvares Cabral

On April 22, 1500, explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral and the fleet of thirteen ships he was leading landed in Brazil in what is now known as Porto Seguro. Although the discovery was somewhat on accident and just a stop on a larger trip around the southern tip of Africa, Cabral is credited with discovering Brazil. Cabral was a Portuguese nobleman, military commander, navigator and explorer and conducted the first major exploration of the northeast coast of South America, claiming it for Portugal. When the ship docked, the initial contact with the natives was friendly. The pilot of the ship brought two natives aboard to confer with Cabral and the newly labeled “Indians” were presented with gifts. Within a few days Cabral’s men had ventured on shore to build an alter to hold Christian Mass. They also erected a massive wooden cross before they continued on their voyage to claim the new territory for Portugal. Cabral claimed that the new land lay east of the demarcation line between Portugal and Spain that had been specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas and was therefore Portuguese territory. This discovery did not result in permanent habitation, however, and was mainly used as a port to export brazilwood from Brazil’s plentiful rainforests. Not until 1532 when the coastal city of São Vicente was founded did Portuguese natives begin to establish a permanent presence in Brazil. In 1534, John III of Portugal, the King of Portugal, started granting land rights to colonize Portuguese territory in South America. What emerged were the Captaincy Colonies of Brazil. These fifteen autonomous and separate colonies were, for the most part, a failure administratively, and thus economically. Each colony was owned and run by a single captain-major. Because the King of Portugal was too far away to exercise any sort of direct control over the colonies, the captain-major were the channel the King used to delegate his powers, with certain restrictions. As the new colonies continued to struggle under the control of the captain-majors, the King desired to solve the governance problem and established the Governorate General of Brazil in 1549. The governorate united the fifteen colonies into a single colony, but each captaincy would continue to exist as a provincial administrative unit of the governorate. The captaincies continued to be ruled by their hereditary captain-majors but they now reported to the new Governor-General of Brazil, Tomé de Sousa. De Sousa brought the first group of Jesuits to the colonies. The spreading of the Catholic faith was an important justification for the Portuguese conquests and missions. Once in Brazil, the Jesuits set out to convert the indigenous people to Catholicism. The Jesuits became an integral part of

the colonization of Brazil due to their success at creating a national Catholic following. Brazil now had permanent Portuguese residents and an established unified government. They were ready to begin exporting goods and wealth back to the Portuguese Empire.

Expansion

With the Portuguese Colonization of Brazil well underway, the demand for profit was significant. The establishment of the sugarcane industry required a tremendous amount of human labor for which the Portuguese turned to the natives for. African slaves shipped into Brazil would meet these labor demands in the future. The natives and the Portuguese were not the only inhabitants of Brazil at this time, however. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and combat the French. In 1530, an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa began in Brazil to patrol the entire coast, and attempt to ban the French. In 1565, the third Governor General of Brazil, Mem de Sá, went on a successful mission to destroy a French colony that had been there for ten years. At the destruction site of this French Colony at Guanabara Bay, the city of Rio de Janeiro was founded in 1567. The colonies in Brazil continued to expand and in 1621, Philip II of Portugal, the current King of Portugal, divided the Governorate General of Brazil into two separate colonies, the State of Brazil and the State of Maranhão. Each of these colonies had its own governor general and government and were very separate from each other. The Portuguese were still not the only inhabitants of Brazil, with much of the north belonging to the Dutch, known as New Holland. The Portuguese fought over this land with the Dutch and were victorious. By 1654 the Netherlands had surrendered and returned control of all Brazilian territory to the Portuguese.

State of Brazil

In July 1751, what was previously the State of Maranhão was restructured into the State of Grão-Pará and Maranhão. The restructuring gave the state a new capital, Santa Maria de Belém, and a new government. The purpose of creating this state was to stimulate economic activities. In 1772, this new state was split into two different states, the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro and the State of Maranhão and Piauí. These new states were a failure and only lasted three years. In 1775, the now three separate colonies of Portuguese-controlled-Brazil were united into a single colony. The State of Brazil now contained the previous State of Brazil, the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro, and the State of Maranhão and Piauí. This new Brazilian State was created to improve military defense in the northern region of Brazil and again, to stimulate economic activities and regional trade with the mainland. The State of Brazil would remain in tact until the end of Colonial Brazil in 1808. Due to this structure, Brazil did not end up split into many different countries like most of the Spanish territories surrounding it.

The Brazilian Economy

by Eric Tarosky

Introduction

Brazil is home to the sixth largest economy in terms of nominal GDP (Gross Domestic Product that has not been adjusted for inflation) coming in at $2.223 trillion.  This makes its economy the largest Latin America and second largest in the western hemisphere. As of 2011, 8.5% of Brazil’s population fell below the poverty line, and in December of 2013 unemployment registered at 5.4%. In 2012, Brazil enjoyed an estimated budget surplus of $64.8 billion.

History

From the early days of its colonization, well up until the late 1930s, the Brazilian economy was sustained largely through a reliance on the export of “primary products,” or products that directly capitalize on a country’s natural resources. The Portuguese colonized Brazil in the year 1500 and retained colonial status until the year 1815 when it was relabeled as a kingdom of Portugal. During this time the economy was primarily sustained through the production of sugar, gold, and coffee, largely through the utilization of slave labor, which continued until the late 19^th century. During these years, Brazil also experienced the largest amount of European immigration of any South American country. It is estimated that between the years of 1882 and 1934, 4.5 million people immigrated to the country.

Modern Day

Present day, natural resources are still a vital part of sustaining the Brazilian economy with a heavy reliance on the nation’s prominent agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service industries. The country has made great strides forward since 2003 to improve its macroeconomic stability (issues of large-scale concern, such as interest rates or general national productivity) by building up a foreign reserve and minimizing debt by investing in domestically controlled companies. Much like the rest of the world, the nation’s growth was hindered by economic downturn in 2008. However, they were also one of the first country’s to emerge during the recovery. In 2010, the Brazil’s GDP reached 7.5%, the highest point over a 25 year period. Unemployment in the nation is currently at a historic low.

 

Inequality of income, shown so clearly in this picture of a favela adjacent to a luxury highrise, has been declining steadily for the past 14 years.  The opposite is currently true of the United States.

Rio de Janeiro Favela/ Highrise

blog.inpolis.com

 

 

 

 

            Currency

The Brazilian currency is called the real. It is subdivided into 100 centavos, or “hundredths.”  It was introduced in 1994 as part of a monetary system reform package called the “Plano Real” designed to curb rising inflation in the country. At the time, it was hoped the real would have a fixed 1:1 exchange rate with the dollar of the United States. However, the current rate (as of March 2013) is 1.99 real to 1 dollar. Monetary amounts are expressed using a capital “R,” followed by a dollar sign with two vertical lines through it, and then finally the price.

           

Industries

 

                        Agriculture

Brazil is typically divided up into two distinct agricultural regions. The first produces the majority of the nations crops for export, such as grains, oilseeds, and other crops. It has a more temperate climate, more fertile soil, and higher rates of rainfall. Additionally, the region is also benefits from being more technologically advanced, having better maintained infrastructure, and generally more experienced and capable farmers. The other region, located in the northeastern part of the country often suffers from drought and inadequate infrastructure. This region is comprised more largely of subsistence farmers.

Among top agricultural exports from Brazil are oranges (Brazil’s output nearly doubles that of the United States, the world’s second largest producer), bananas, corn, cocoa, beans, and rice. Brazil also has one of the world’s largest livestock populations (at 200 million), and slaughter more cattle annually than even the United States.

Mechanized farming techniques are still largely a rarity in Brazil, particularly in the northeast regions where farmers still rely predominately on manual labor. The region contains over half of Brazil’s farms, but most are extremely small in size covering less than 12 acres. At great expense the Brazilian government has funded large-scale irrigation projects, but these have yielded small returns, as most families in the region were unable to utilize them.

Brazil is also one of the world’s leading producers of ethanol, and their progressive effort since 1975 to substitute the clean-burning alternative for gasoline combustion engines has been one of the most successful in the world.

 

                        Mining

Brazil has a wealth of mineral reserves, chiefly iron ore, copper, and tin. There are also large quantities of precious materials such as gold, gemstones, quartz, and several forms of precious clay. Brazil also has extensive offshore reserves of petroleum and natural gas. These are located primarily off the southeastern part of the country.

 

                        Manufacturing

Manufacturing is responsible for one-fifth of Brazil’s GDP and one-tenth of their work force employment. The southeastern part of the nation houses the majority of its established industry and employs more than one-fifth of its industrial workers. São Paulo is currently the leading city in terms of production, accounting for almost two-fifths of all manufactured goods. Most manufacturing in Brazil is conducted in smaller factories, usually not employing more than 1,000 employees.

Since the mid-1900s Brazil has also emerged as a leading supplier of automobiles worldwide. Today, it produces close to 2 million vehicles a year. The nation currently also exports a large number of electrical machinery and related products, such as refrigerators, aircraft, etc.

The textile industry began in the early 1800s to capitalize on the large supply of local cotton crops around the eastern state of Bahia. It is not concentrated primarily in São Paulo. The footwear industry also had its beginnings at the turn of the 19^th century and remains a large employer of the citizens of Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost Brazilian state.

 

                        Service Industry

The service industry is the most rapidly-developing in Brazil and is also currently the nation’s largest employer, accounting for more than half of its workforce. It is divided up into private and public sector industries. The largest services of the private industry are those related to hospitality (restaurants, hotels, etc.) and various repair-oriented businesses. Retail and personal services are also prominent private industries. Information technology is currently the fastest growing field in Brazil.

 

Preschool Education in Brazil

Catherine Johnson

In Brazil, early childhood education, for children under 6, is considered a constitutional right (Choi, 2006).   Unlike in the US, the federal government of Brazil has mandated that all children have access to early childhood educational programs.  As a result, nearly all Brazilian children attend at least one year of pre-elementary education (Freitas, 2008).    The Constitution gives municipalities responsibility for providing education for young people (Choi, 2006).  In 1996, and education law was passed that defined early childhood education as the first stage of education an split it into two categories: day care centers for children age zero to three and preschools for children age four to six (McConnell-Farmer, 2012).  While these are non-mandatory, the law stated that they would be recognized as educational institutions (Choi, 2006).  Currently, teacher training in Brazil does not include programs for pre-service training of teaching young children (Aguiar,2007).  As responsibilities of municipalities, they can set up, mange, and supervise its own early childhood education system or opt to follow the state system (McConnell-Farmer, 2012).  States are not involved in the provision of early childhood services, but they are responsible for regulating and supervising whatever services exist where municipalities have not set up their own system (Choi, 2006).

Day care centers were established for children ages zero to three (McConnell-Farmer, 2012).  Their purpose is to provide care as well as education.  They are mostly full-time five days a week.  Teachers must have at least a secondary education teaching certificate.  They fall under the education sector and are funded by municipalities and states (Choi, 2006).  Pre-schools were established for students age four to six (McConnell-Farmer, 2012).  Their purpose is to provide introductory education services.  They are mostly half time, five days per week.  Teachers are required to have at least a secondary education teaching certificate.  They fall under the education sector and are funded by municipalities and states (Choi, 2006).

Source: (Choi, 2006)

Brazil’s governmental policy in the last twenty years has been generally “pro-child”.  The Federal Constitution of 1988 declared children to be citizens and stated all children have the right of access to education starting at birth.  The 1990 Statute for Children dictated children’s rights to education, to a family or guardianship, and to protection from labor and from full penalties for crimes.  In addition, over the last 30 years, Brail has made policy advances, noted in the table below,  in early childhood education and are linked to expansions in programs to benefit children (Evans, 2012).

Source: (Evans, 2012)

In 1996, the educational law passed lowered the compulsory age for education to seven.  The 2005 amendment to that law lowered the age to six.  Finally, in 2009 a constitutional amendment lowered the age again to four.  This makes the starting age for schooling in Brail one of the youngest in the world.  This is drastically seen in enrollment in Brazilian preschools.  Fifteen years ago, fewer than 50% of children age four to six attended preschool.  Now, there are over 92% of children age four to six enrolled in preschool (Evans, 2012).

Source: (Evans, 2012)

The US view of pre-primary education promotes a holistic approach toward formal schooling preparedness.  This means an emphasis on well-balanced development not only in the cognitive domain, but also in the social, emotional, communicative, and physical domains.  The US believes that success at school not only on the ability to read, write, and count, but also on the willingness to learn and ability to communicate and adapt to the social settings of school life.  However, Brazilian early childhood education, particularly in preschools, takes a different approach.  Students are often found in a “typical” classroom with rows of chairs and desks with students facing the teacher and blackboard.  In addition, there is a greater focus on numeracy and literacy (Choi, 2006).

Throughout education literature, it is standard belief the early childhood education can have positive and long lasting effects on children’s welfare.  While participating in an early childhood education program is not guarantee of success, it has been proven that there are many positive factors that come out of those programs.  During the first five years of a child’s life, they develop foundational capabilities on which the rest of their development builds.  There are many aspects that go into having goof early childhood education systems which include safe and appropriate infrastructure, effective daily program structures, personal care routines, interactions with staff, and activities to promote physical, social and cognitive development (Evans, 2012).  However, while Brazil has a strong early childhood educational program, participation is not linked to academic success.  Because of the divide between public and private schooling, eventual attendance at a top public university comes down to socioeconomic status.  Those families who can afford to send their children to private schools provide the opportunity to be better prepared for the college entrance exam and therefore are more likely to be accepted to the top public, free, universities.

Bibliography

Aguiar, Gabriela. Early childhood in Brazil: general overview and current issues. The Hague: Bernard van

Leer Foundation, 2007. Print.

Choi, S. UNESCO Education Sector, The Division for the Promotion of Basic Education. (2006). Policy

review report: early childhood care and education in brazil (N° 13 – 2007 ). Retrieved from

UNESCO Education Sector website: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001512/

151271e.pdf

Evans, David Kirkham, and Katrina Kosec. Early child education making programs work for Brazil’s most

important generation. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2012. Print.

Freitas, L. B. L. (2008). Conceptions of us and brazilian early childhood care and education: A historical

and comparative analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32(2), 161-170. doi:

10.1177/0165025407087216

McConnell-Farmer, Judith. “Perspectives in Early Childhood Education: Belize, Brazil, Mexico, El Salvador

and Peru.” Forum on Public Policy 2012.1 (2012): n. pag. http://forumonpublicpolicy.com

/vol2012.no1/archive/farmer.pdf. Web. 22 Mar. 2013.

Ensino Médio: Secondary Education in Brazil

Hanna Mincemoyer

Strong Performers and Successful Reformers

 

Introduction

Once students have completed their Fundamental Education they are allowed to enroll in secondary education, or ensino médio. Ensino médio loosely means middle education or middle school but corresponds to what we think of as high school. Occasionally grades 5-8 are considered “lower secondary” and are included in ensino médio, but they are actually ensino fundamental. The “upper secondary” education in Brazil is grades 9 to 11 and usually takes three years complete and requires a bare minimum of 2,200 hours of schooling. Students enter secondary education around age 15 and most complete it by the time they turn 17. The literacy rate for people age 15 to 17 is 84.1% as of 2006. Local and state governments are responsible for establishing education programs that follow the guidelines and use the funding supplied by the federal government. The state governments provide the public schools for secondary education so the schooling is free, but it is not mandatory.

The upper secondary education courses can be conducted either at the public or private school the child has been attending up until this point, or at specific colleges that prepare the students to take a specific entrance exam set by a specific university. In 1997, the public sector accounted for 85% of lower and upper secondary school enrollments with the private sector accounting for 15%. The private school enrollment for secondary education has remained fairly steady with 13% enrollment in 2009. The private sector participation increases as the students get older, accounting for about 20% of upper secondary enrollments and more than a third of all upper secondary education establishments. It is also possible to take professional training courses that last two years along with the regular Secondary Education track. These extra classes usually mean having more instructional hours per week and potentially taking a fourth year to complete.

History and Achievement

Until the year 1971, ensino médio had three different names: curso científico, curso normal and curso clássico. In 1971, it was united under the name segundo grau, which was eventually changed to ensino médio in 1996. The unification of these three names under the title of ensino médio helped to create a national standard for secondary education. At this time in Brazil the illiteracy rate was around 25%. It was clear that improvements needed to be made to the current education system and the overall education of the Brazilian population.

Between 1980 and 2000, in the 15 to 17 age demographic, the enrollment rate rose from 49.7% to 83%. While there have been significant advances in the past few years, it is very common for students to repeat grades and display poor academic achievement. The results of the national assessment test (SAEB) in 1997 reflected that only 52% of 8^th graders and 26% of 11^th graders were achieving at the expected level for their grade in Portuguese. One contributing factor to these academic problems was the high levels of absenteeism in Brazilian secondary schools. The graph below reflects a positive achievement trend for students who are just entering upper secondary school (students 15 years old). Many critics are demanding more progress, pointing out that the recent progress merely upgrades Brazil’s schools from disastrous to very bad. Backing up this assertion is the fact that two-thirds of 15 year olds are capable of no more than basic arithmetic.

Curriculum

The core curriculum for secondary education is made up of Portuguese, foreign language, history, geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, philosophy and sociology. The language education is delivered in is Portuguese, the official national language. During the military dictatorship between 1964 and 1985, philosophy and sociology were banned. They only recently became required classes again. The 1996 Education Law defines three objectives for secondary education: academic preparation, acquisition of tools for citizenship, and preparation for employment.

Unlike other countries, Brazilian students don’t have a final test to conclude studies. Their approval depends only on their final grade on each subject. Most universities create their own test to select and accept new students. One standardized test, the Vestibular, generally happens once a year and universities often evaluate these scores as well. Enem, a non-mandatory national exam, evaluates high school students in Brazil and is used to rank both private and public schools.

School Environment

Secondary education enrollments in Brazil amount to approximately 20 million students; 13 million in lower secondary and 7 million in upper secondary. Brazilian secondary school students are referenced by their year meaning they are called 1st, 2nd or 3rd year students. Often grades 5 to 11 are within one school building, blurring the distinction between early secondary and late secondary schooling. The educational year begins in February/March and finishes in December; institutions are permitted to define their own actual start and end dates. They must, however, provide at least 200 days of classes per year. The school year is generally divided into two semesters, the first from March through mid-July and the second from August through mid-December. Secondary schooling is sometimes provided during both the day and at night. The night school is very attractive for students enrolled in upper secondary education because they are able to hold a full time job at the same time. Around 60% of students enrolled in upper secondary school were enrolled in night school as of 2001.

The lack of funds and social problems Brazil is continually faced with contribute to poor attendance from the students, especially those in public schools. There is a large divide in resources available for students attending schools in wealthier areas versus schools in underprivileged areas. In 2001, 60% of the schools catering predominantly to wealthy students had computers while only 20% of the schools attended mostly by the poor were equipped with computers. This statistic reflects how the student make-up of a school can change the quality of education received. 

Demographics of Brazil

Carnival in Rio

by Marcy Herr

Race and ethnicity: To describe the race and ethnicity of Brazil it is first important to understand the difference between these terms. Race is defined as each of the major divisions of humankind with distinguishing physical characteristics. Ethnicity is the fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition. In Brazil, the ethnic group is composed of the following populations: 48.43% white, 43.80% mulatto (black and white mixed), 6.84% black and the remaining ~1% includes Japanese, Arab and Amerindian.

The diversity within the population in Brazil is due to the immigration that occurred to fulfill the need for workers in the coffee cultivation industry. Following the end of African slavery, immigration from other areas of the world increased. Italians, Portuguese, Spaniards, and Germans came from Europe, and later immigrants from other South American countries and Japan came to Brazil for work. It is said that there is no “typical Brazilian” because Brazil is such a melting pot of races from all around the world.

The following video demonstrates the variety of races and ethnicities that inhabit Brazil.

Brazil has a population of over 201 million ranking it 5th largest in population size worldwide. In the past 50 years Brazil has seen a decrease in fertility which has led to a slowing population growth rate, aging population and a shift in the demographics.

Religion: Brazil is a very religious country comprised of a variety of religions but predominantly Roman Catholic. 73.6% of the Brazilian population is Roman Catholic, 15.4% Protestant, 1.3% Spiritualist, other about 2% and no religion about 7%. As of 2007, Brazil had the second highest Christian population in the world.

The following link shows a short video example of what a typical Catholic church in Brazil looks like as well as parts of their religious ceremonies.

Urbanization: The urban population in Brazil makes up about 87% of the total population and the rate of urbanization is 1.1%. Over 20 million Brazilians immigrated from rural to urban areas in the period from 1950 to 1970 as cities really became developed and expanded. Urbanization slowed down around 1980 as Brazil was going through difficult economic times actually resulting in a emigration movement. The urbanization movement was so strong that the government had to create policies to limit growth in the large cities and encourage development to smaller ones instead. Currently 75% of people live on or near the coastline in cities, leaving much of the country uninhabited.

Language: The official language of Brazil is Portuguese which can be explained due to the influx of Portuguese speaking immigrants. Brazil is the largest Portuguese speaking country in the world and the only one in the Americas.

Culture: Rio Carnival is a great demonstration of the diverse culture of Brazil. Carnival highlights the beauty of ethnic traditions and brings them all together in a four day celebration ending on fat Tuesday, the day before ash Wednesday. This festival allows Brazilians to party and celebrate before sacrificing bodily pleasures for Lent. Carnivals are held all over Brazil, but the Carnival in Rio de Janeiro is the largest and most elaborate celebration. Carnival resembles a parade, and participants dress in costumes while singing and dancing. Each group of dancers is competing with their samba school and the judges observe a number of them throughout the four day event. Many of the participants from these samba schools live in the favelas, or slums of Brazil, and Carnival is something highly anticipated by them. Carnival really brings all sects of a community together to celebrate the culture and heritage of Brazil. Brazilians are expected to forget about social and class differences during the celebration. Originally brought to Brazil in 1850 from Portugal, this holiday has truly expanded to be a fabulous demonstration of many aspects of Brazilian culture.

Rio Carnival video:

It’s difficult to capture such a diverse culture in a short summary. The people of Brazil, although from so many countries around the world are united by their pride in their rich culture. Vibrant, friendly and generous are all used to describe Brasileiros who enjoy living a slow paced life. They take their time and try to enjoy the moment rather than rushing through life. Emphasis is put on relationships and family rather than inanimate objects. The culture of Brazil can be demonstrated in a variety of ways including art, music, theatre, literature, poetry and of course football. Culture is celebrated through Carnival, but Brasileiros enjoy dancing and partying with friends and family anytime.

Sources

http://www.rio-carnival.net

http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/445

http://countrystudies.us/brazil/29.htm

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html

http://www.kidscornerbrazil.org/content/people.php

Ensino Fundamental: Elementary Education in Brazil_by Jennifer Lee

The Basic Structure of Elementary Education in Brazil

Elementary or primary education in Brazil, called ensino fundamental, is free and mandatory for Brazilian children and youths aged 6 through 14. The primary school structure is divided into two levels; the first 5 grades, or years 1 through 5, and the following three grade levels, or years 5 through 9. During the first 5 years of schooling, students are usually assisted by a single teacher for the entire day while the older kids have teachers for each subject (World Education Forum, 2000). The compulsory 9 year-long program for elementary education in Brazil became effective in 2005 under a reformed law that extended the years of required schooling for all children. Considering the recent implementation of the new school years and the federal government system of the country, expanding elementary school enrollment is still in process to achieve the national goal (Portal Brasil, 2010). Similar to the education system in the United States, majority authority to control elementary schools is entrusted to municipalities and states (UNESCO-IBE, 2010).  However, the curriculum taught in classrooms is structured around a common core established by the national government.  Common core subjects include language arts (Portuguese), social studies (history and geography), science (mathematics, and natural), art, psychical and health education, as well as social life and ethics. The Ministry of Education, which is a federal body, regulates the overall education in Brazil, defining the guiding principles for the basic organization of the programs; states and municipalities are then responsible to implement the principles while incorporating additional materials to accommodate the local and regional needs. Education is stated as a constitutional right under Brazil’s most recent constitution written in 1988. The constitution requires states and municipals to spend 25% of their revenues and education and 18% at the federal level (Pearson Foundation, 2013).

The elementary school year in Brazil starts during the summer time, which is around the month of February for a country in the southern hemisphere. The constitution mandates schools to operate at least 200 days of schooling per year, but specific yearly schedules are left to individual schools to decide (AngloINFO, 2013). Generally across the nation, regardless of public or private, an academic day in schools are divided into three sessions: running approximately from 7:00am to 12:00pm, 12:00pm to 5:00pm, and 5:00pm to 10:00pm. A student is required to only attend one session per day. The particular system was implemented in an effort to accommodate the growing number of enrolled children in schools (AngloINFO, 2013).

According to Brazil’s national estimates recorded in 2011 UNESCO International Bureau of Education report, 96.5% of children aged 7 to 14 were enrolled in primary school. This has been a remarkable growth in Brazil, which historically had a low level of educational outcomes compared to other countries of the same economic development level (World Education Forum, 2000). In fact, during the years of 1991 to 1998, net schooling rate of the population aged 7 through 14 increased from 86% to 95.3% overall (World Education Forum, 2000). The vast majority of these kids are enrolled in public schools while around 12% of them are enrolled in private schools (Portal Brasil, 2010). Although Brazil’s successful effort to spread mass schooling is positive news to the developing society, major concerns have risen regarding the quality of education for elementary aged students in public schools. The main issue identified by policymakers is that the dramatic increase in enrollment rate was not consistently aided with expanding facilities and increase in the number of teachers (Otis, 2013). According to the School Census in 2007, about 87% of the teachers in the first years of ensino fundamental had met the legal minimum qualification requirements, and only 50% of them had higher education qualification in pedagogy (UNESCO-IBE, 2010).

Problems of Inequality in Brazilian Primary Education

Brazil’s education system at a national level has been historically marked with vast inequality. The beginning of modern education and inequality of schooling traces back to the 19th century when the European immigrants arrived and founded their own private and religious schools. Such private schools excelled in quality while the public schools remained in extremely poor conditions (Otis, 2013). Immigrant children from Africa along with children of poor natives attended public school and even so the attendance rate was very low. Universal coverage in education began in Brazil during the last decade of the 20^th century with which expansion of mass schooling proliferated (Rios-Neto & de Miereles Guimaraes, 2010). Although the expansion of funding for all schools successfully increased enrollment and academic gains on the international level, the issue of unequal quality among schools continues to persist today (Otis, 2013).  One of the major forces driving this inequality is the fact that the expansion of public schools were not sufficiently assisted with additional facilities and teacher supplies; thus when higher socioeconomic status parents perceived the quality of public schools fall,  they chose to send their kids to private and religious schools. Recognizing this problem, the government has set out several initiatives to increase funding and resources to improve the quality of public schools and narrow the gap.

Recent Reforms in Brazil’s Elementary Education

A major improvement in the government investment into Brazil’s elementary education has been the striking increase in the government expenditure for each pupil over the last decade. Between 2000 and 2008, the government increased its expenditure per student from primary to upper secondary education by 121% (OECD, 2011). A large proportion of the budget has been directed towards improving the teacher quality in schools. Teacher’s salary was raised substantially and the minimum entry qualifications for those entering the teaching profession were raised in order to extract qualified, intelligent individuals into classrooms (Pearson Foundation, 2013).

A primary focuses of today’s elementary education in Brazil is the reliance on assessments for evaluation (Pearson Foundation, 2013). Similar to the state level assessments that are required in U.S. public schools under the No Child Left Behind Act provisions, Brazilian elementary students participate in an exam to be evaluated of their educational skills (Portal Brasil, 2010). Although there are monetary stipends associated with school level achievement scores, education policy makers in Brazil view and conduct the exam as a way to identify student needs in order to prevent the child from reaching the next grade level without mastering the skills (Pearson Foundation, 2013). The Ministry of Education developed a Basic Education Development Index (IDEB), which is a system that tracks schools’ performance and progress. Recently, the Ministry has begun tracking progress of schools in order to identify best practices of teaching and improvement and share them with other states. Local municipalities are encouraged to be creative and flexible in developing their methods to increase student performance and quality of schools. These collaborative efforts at the federal, state, and municipal levels have led to an impressive increase in Brazil’s international performance measured in the Program for International Student Assessment, or PISA (Pearson Foundation, 2013). Educational reforms continue to take place throughout the different levels of the system in order to improve the quality of elementary schools in Brazil.

Video link:  http://www.pearsonfoundation.org/oecd/brazil.html